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Business associations \english\

imposes personal liability against only those owners who actively participated in management of the enterprise.

ššššššššš 5.EFFECT OF STATUTES:

ššššššššššššš a)On De Facto Doctrine--states following the prior version of the Model Act have abolished the de facto doctrine, thus making all purported 'shs' jointly and severally liable for all liabilities incurred as a result of the purported 'incorporation.' However, statutes based on Revised Model Business Corporation Act require a person acting on behalf of the enterprise to know that there was no incorporation before liability attaches.

ššššššššššššš b)On Estoppel Doctrine--the effect of both acts is an unsettled issue.

ššššššššššššš c)On Liability--under the prior Model Act, liability extends to investors who also exercise control or actively participate in policy and operational decisions. It is expected that the Revised Model Act will be interpreted in the same manner.

III.LIABILITIES FOR TRANSACTIONS BEFORE INCORPORATION.

šššš A.PROMOTERS--a promoter participates in the formation of the corp, usually arranging compliance with the legal requirements of formation, securing initial capital, and entering into necessary contracts on behalf of the corp during the time it's being formed.

ššššššššššššš a)Fiduciary Duties to Each Other--Full disclosure and fair dealing are required between the promoters and the corp and among promoters themselves.

šššš B.CONTRACTS MADE BY PROMOTERS ON CORP'S BEHALF

ššššššššš 1.RIGHTS AND LIABILITIES OF CORPORATION:

ššššššššššššš a)English Rule--the corp is not directly liable on pre-incorporation contracts even if later ratified. Rationale: the corp was not yet in existence at the time the promoter was acting.

ššššššššššššš b)American Rule--the corp is liable if it later ratifies or adopts pre-incorporation K.

ššššššššššššš c)Corporation's Right to Enforce Contract--under either rule, the corp may enforce the contract against the party with whom the promoter contracted, if it chooses to do so.

ššššššššš 2.RIGHTS AND LIABILITIES OF PROMOTERS.

ššššššššššššš a)Liability on Pre-incorporation Contract--generally, promoters are liable if the corp rejects the pre-incorporation contract, fails to incorporate, or adopts a contract but fails to perform, unless the contracting party clearly intended to contract with the corporation only and not with the promoters individually.

ššššššššššššš b)Right to Enforce Against the Other Party--if a corp is not formed, the promoter may still enforce the contract.

šššš C.OBLIGATIONS OF PREDECESSOR BUSINESS--a corporation that acquires all of the assets of a predecessor business does not ordinarily succeed to its liabilities, with exceptions:

ššššššššššššš a)Exceptions--the successor corp may be liable for its predecessor liabilities if:

šš šššššššššššššš1)the new corp expressly or impliedly assumes the predecessor obligations (the creditors of the old corp may hold the new corp liable as third-party beneficiaries);

šššššššššššššššš 2)the sale was an attempted fraud on the creditors; or

šššš šššššššššššš3)the predecessor is merged into or absorbed by the successor.

IV.POWERS OF THE CORPORATION.

šššš A.CORPORATE POWERS--generally, corporate purposes and powers are those expressly set forth in the corporation's articles, those conferred by the statute, and the implied powers necessary to carry out the express powers. Transactions beyond the purposes and powers of the corporation are ultra vires.

šššššš

ššššššššš 1.TRADITIONAL PROBLEM AREAS--the following three powers are particularly significant express powers, since older statutes did not specifically confer them:

ššššššššššššš a)Guarantees--modern statutes confer the power to guarantee the debts of others if it is in furtherance of the corporate business;

ššššššššššššš b)Participation in a Partnership--present-day statutes explicitly allow the corp to participate with others in any corp, partnership, or other association;

ššššššššššššš c)Donations--because the general rule is that the objective of a business corporation is to conduct business activity with a view to profit, early cases held that charitable contributions were ultra vires; the modern view permits reasonable donations without showing the probability of a direct benefit to the corp.

šššš B.AGENCY

ššššššššš 1.DEFINITION--agency is the fiduciary relation which results from the manifestation of consent by one person to another that the other shall act on his behalf and subject to his control, and consent by the other to so act." Rest2dAg

ššššššššššššš a)Parties to an agency relationship--Principal & Agent. Thus, three essential elements of an agency relationship:

šššššššššššššššš 1)Manifestation by principal that agent shall act for him in some undertaking;

šššššššššššššššš 2)Acceptance by the agent; and

šššššššššššššššš 3)Understanding that the principal is in control of the undertaking.

šššššššššššššššššššš I)Note that these are factual issues; if they are satisfied, then the relationship is one of agency, regardless of what the parties themselves call it (but the parties' labels may provide evidence of their intent)

ššššššššš 2.CATEGORIES OF AGENCY

ššššššššššššš a)Actual Express Authority--authority is the power of the agent to affect the legal relations of the principal by acts done in accordance with the principal's manifestations of consent to him." Rest 7. Operative word is "manifestation" . If he says, do something, it's express ‑‑ but the manifestation may include implied assent to other things as well, which is-->

ššššššššššššš b)Actual Implied Authority--unless otherwise agreed, authority to conduct a transaction includes authority to do acts which are incidental to it, usually accompany it, or are reasonably necessary to accomplish it." Rest  35

ššššššššššššš c)Apparent Authority ‑‑ a.k.a. "ostensible authority"--apparent authority is the power to affect the legal relationships of another person by transactions with third persons, professedly as agent for the other, arising from and in accordance with the other's manifestations to such third persons." Rest 8. But note that the manifestation includes allowing the agent to represent accurately his own authority.

ššššššššššššš d)Inherent Authority--this is the authority that inheres in an office. General agent (agent authorized to conduct a series of transactions involving continuity of service): P is bound if A is acting in the interests of P and A does an act usual or necessary with respect to the authorized transactions ;

šššššššššššššššš 1)Unusual activities--depositing corporate checks on a personal account is an unusual activity, and the bank should make inquiry if the person is authorized to do that; otherwise, the bank is liable to the principal for lost money (Mohr)

ššššššššššššš e)Ratification--ratification is the affirmance by a person of a prior act which did not bind him but which was done or professedly done on his account, whereby the act, as to some or all persons, is given effect as if originally authorized by him." Rest  82. The principal can affirm by words, or by deeds. This includes the failure to repudiate the subject matter when presented, suing to enforce the obligation, retaining the benefits of the transaction. Note several things:

šššššššššššššššš 1)Ratification